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A BEFITTING LIVING OR BURIAL: PERSPECTIVES OF LIFE 

AND DEATH IN IGBO ONOTOLOGY 

Ratzinger NWOBODO, Ph.D. 

ABSTRACT 

Man, from primordial times has been preoccupied with the search for the meaning of 

ultimate reality - life and death. He has continued in the quest to find meaning to his 

reality in order to be able to properly situate his existence. From the ancient period to 

this age, the debate concerning the goal of life and death has raged. The Cyrenaics, for 

instance, believe that the ultimate goal of life is pleasure. Aristotle in a similar way 

holds that the end of life is eudaimonia - happiness. According to the Cynics, good living 

entails living a moral life. As opinions and worldviews differ on the meaning of life, so 

has there been a divergent view on the concept of death. While some believe life is 

transitory, others like the Epicureans are of the opinion that death is the ultimate end of 

man. In Igbo Cosmo-ontology, like other African societies, the concept of life and death 

has been approached from their gamuts of meaning. The Igbo people hold dearly the 

sacrosanctity of life. Life is respected and protected. Ndi Igbo believe that life is like a 

journey, like a market place (uwa bu ahia) where everyone leaves after business 

transactions. At the end of one's life journey on earth, one joins the ancestors in the 

great beyond. However, there are criteria necessary if one must be accorded a befitting 

burial which serves as the gateway to joining the cult of ancestors. While ndi Igbo revere 

body of a deceased family member, such respect is accorded to those who have lived a 

good life, married with kids and also died at a ripe old age without suffering from 

strange diseases like leprosy or swollen stomach before death. It is based on these Igbo 

worldview regarding life and death that the research questions: what is good living in 

Igbo ontology? What does death mean for ndi Igbo? What is the correlation between 

good living and a befitting burial? How does a befitting living or burial affect believe 

in reincarnation?, is anchored. In the bid to do justice to the above research questions, 

we shall employ the hermeneutic and analytic methods for adequate interpretation and 

critical analysis of such concepts for proper understanding. 

Keywords: Beffiting living, Death, Befitting burial, Ancestorship, Reincarnation and 

Igbo Society. 

INTRODUCTION 

The search for the meaning of life and death pervades historical evolution of thought.  



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Man has continued to question the essence of living, the goal of life and death. These 

consist in man's effort to give meaning to his existence. In African society, different 

cultures at various eras have approached life and death from their gamut of meanings.  

There are many and often complicated ceremonies connected with life and death, burial, 

funeral, inheritance, the living-dead, the world of the departed, the visit of the living 

dead to their human families, reincarnation and survival of the soul. In Igbo society, the 

sacrosanctity of life is highly revered. Life is considered the highest good; hence 

anything that would lead to loss of life is practically avoided. Life is a whole, an entity, 

a compendium, a mystery and encyclopedia of its own. Life is a continuum, such that 

we are either, dead, living, existing or moribund.  Life is also transitory. "Once 

conceived, we are old enough to die. After the day of our conception, we await the day 

of our death," (Ezeokafor, 2017:6).  Life is a journey at the end of which we return to 

where we came from. ? nw? (death) is a respecter of nobody hence Igbo say that ?nw? 

ama ézè (death knows no king), ?nw? ama dike, ?nw? ama onyeukwu amongst other 

expressions in regard to death. Death occurs at different ages of life, place and 

circumstances. No amount of carefulness can save one from the cold hands of death. 

Little wonder Igbo has the adage: a z?ta nd? e dobere ?nw?. The Igbo African society 

believes that the way a man lives his life while on earth determines how and where he 

will be buried.  

Death is, on its own, a necessary end, a path everyone must travel. Death is one of the 

most universal and mysterious experience. Death is sorrowful, yet, it is also important. 

In Igbo ontology, death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he moves on 

to join his ancestors. The Bishop of Awka Diocese, His Lordship Most Rev. Paulinus 

C. Ezeokafor (2017:8), states that "Even though this transformation does not break all 

ties of friendship with the deceased's friends and relatives, it brings about a definite 

change in the mode and manner of their relationship". "Death is something that concerns 

everybody partly because sooner or later everyone personally faces it and partly because 

it's brings loss and sorrow to every family and community" Mbiti (1967)2 opines. The 

Igbo traditional societies like other cultures in the universe have confronted death in 

their attempt to philosophically give meaning to their experience. The Igbo like the 

majority of the human race, refuses to accept death as the finality of man. According to 

the Igbo, death is a continuation of life, man should not just disappear. According to 

Igbo tradition, the dead continue to live in the memory and activities of the community. 

Their position in the land of the dead determines how well they had lived and how well 

their progeny had discharged their duties towards them, by according them a befitting 

burial. In Igbo traditional society, the society is the centre of existence. In the world of 

the dead, the dead exist for the society. They must continue to bid well for the 

community by granting it favorable auspices from the gods. 

Even when the dead don't make it into the coming of the ancestors, they don't just 

disappear. They hang around the community, causing great nuisance to the immediate 

family and the community at large. When an Igbo man dies, he does not desire to be 

united to any god in any heaven or to be punished by any demon in a hell fire; his being 

is essentially defined as being with the community. In the words of Mbiti, (1967:158)3 



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"death is a monster before whom, man is utterly helpless”. Relatives watch a person die 

and they cannot help him escape death. It is an individual affair in which nobody else 

can interfere or intervene."  This paper examines the concept of death, and befitting 

living or burial in Igbo ontology and also to show that death only occur because there 

is life and it is only a living person ( being) that can experience death. 

THE CONCEPT OF DEATH 

Death is one of the most fundamental, universal and mysterious of man's experience. It 

is a respecter of nobody, age or place. It is painful, sorrowful yet an experience that no 

man can escape. Philosophers, scholars and different cultures have approached the 

concept of death from different perspective. While some conceive death as the finality, 

the ultimate end of man, others see it as a continuum, as a transition from the physical 

world to another world. According to Plato, life is the coming together of the body and 

soul where the soul is a prisoner in the body. The soul, at death, is liberated and 

continues to live in the world of forms where real things exist. Plato's conception of 

death portrays it as a good thing by means of which the soul becomes free. Like his 

teacher, Socrates, who hoped to philosophize with the gods after death, Plato believes 

that death is not the absolute end of man. Contrary to Plato's view, Aristotle maintains 

that death is the end of everything. While everything possesses a soul and body, death 

brings an end to them all. At death, both the body and soul disintegrates and each returns 

to its source. 

Heidegger (1962:294) sees death as "the possibility of the absolute impossibility of the 

Dasein". For him, death is the most personal of man's experiences. Whereas man 

(Dasein) is full of possibilities, death extinguishes man's transcendental abilities. In 

other words, death puts an end to whatever man could become. Unlike some cultures 

where death is seen to be a painful experience, Heidegger seems to be indifferent to the 

feelings of people at the death of a beloved one. Death, according to Sartre, is an area 

of one's facticity where one exercises and expresses his freedom and authenticity. 

Advocating for freedom, he insists that one can choose whatever one wants as that 

defines ones essence and authentic existence. He maintains one can as well choose to 

die - end one's life. Sartre, like Heidegger, sees death as something fundamentally 

personal. 

Philosophers and non-philosophers have attempted to elucidate the concept of death 

with little success. Mason (2015) holds that philosophers and non-philosophers stand 

on a level of equality with respect to death. There is no expert on death, for there is 

nothing to know about it. Not even those who study the death process have an edge on 

the rest of us. We are all equals in thinking about death, and we all begin and end 

thinking about it from a position of ignorance. Corroborating the views of Heidegger, 

Mason (2015) posits that "Death means the end of my future. However, as long as I am 

alive, I will be living toward that possibility of no longer having possibilities". Death 

puts an end to all human possibilities. 



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The Concept of death has also eluded a definite description in the field of medicine 

and/or science. Biologically, death is the cessation of orgasmic functioning of the body. 

The clinical definition of death was limited to the absence of heartbeat and respiration. 

However, advancement in medical technology has led to modifications in the definition 

of death. According to the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in 

Medicine, Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1981:4), death is the "irreversible 

cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or irreversible cessation of all 

functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem". According to Gire (2014), there 

are other eight criteria that must be met in order for one to be declared dead. He 

encapsulates it thus: 

Established alongside this definition are eight criteria, all of 

which must be met before a person is declared dead: absence 

of spontaneous response to any stimuli; completely 

unresponsive to even the most painful stimuli; lack of 

spontaneous respiration for at least one hour; absence of 

postural activity, swallowing, yawning, or vocalizing; no eye 

movements, blinking, or pupil responses; a flat 

electroencephalogram (EEG) for at least 10 minutes; a total 

absence of motor reflexes; and that there ought not to be any 

change in the above criteria if tested again after 24 hours. This 

definition not only represents a largely Western conception of 

death, but is also a basically medical definition of the concept" 

(Gireh, 2014:3-4). 

The understanding and conception of death varies across cultures and religions. For the 

Buddhists, death is the absence of consciousness. Consciousness is that by which the 

animation of the body is possible. Without consciousness, the body cannot function; 

hence to die is to lose consciousness.  

According to Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy in accordance with Luper, holds that 

death is life's ending.8 Many African societies entertain the belief that death is a 

transformation from this life to another life. Man's journey continues even after death. 

In the words of Mbiti (1975:112-3), people refer to death or dying as returning home, 

going away, answering the summons, saying yes to death, disappearing, departing, 

ceasing to eat, ceasing to breathe, sinking, fighting a losing battle, refusing food, 

rejecting people, sleeping, taking one away, saying goodbye, shutting the eyes, being 

broken up, being snatched away, being taken away, being called away, joining the 

forefathers, becoming God's property etc.9 These words show that death is not a 

complete destruction of the individual. Life goes on beyond the grave. Therefore, people 

combine their sorrow over the death of someone with the belief that it is not the end, 

and that the departed continues to live in the hereafter (which is actually the real home). 

People's conception of death greatly influences how they live their lives. People, who 



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believe that there is life after death and how one's life determines one's fate after death, 

are likely to live an upright life. 

THE IGBO PEOPLE OF NIGERIA 

In order to properly appreciate the perception of life and death in Igbo ontology, it would 

be important to shed light on who the Igbo people are. The Igbo ethnic group is one of 

the major ethnic groups in Nigeria. The Igbos are found in the tropical rainforest of 

southeastern part of Nigeria. In the present day Nigeria, Igbo people occupy dominantly 

five out of the thirty-six States of the federation, namely; Anambra, Enugu, Imo, Abia 

and Ebonyi states. Ndi Igbo are found in the southernmost part of Nigeria in Rivers state 

and cross River state. They can also be found in the west of Nigeria in Delta state. To 

the north, the Ndi Igbo appear in Benue state and kogi state, Mwakikagile (2006) 

asserts.15 

According to Afigbo (1975), the Igbos, like any other group of people are anxious to 

discover their origin and reconstruct how they came to be where they are... their 

experience under colonialism and since Nigeria's independence have emphasized for 

them the reality of their group identity which they want to anchor into authenticated 

history.16 Onwuejiogwu (1996:81) holds that the traditional history of origin of a given 

people forms part of their thought system, belief and social life. There are many dialect 

of the Igbo language, the central Igbo is understood by all Igbo speaking communities.17 

The variation in the language clearly indicate that ndi Igbo are not of a single origin. 

There must have been immigration and contacts with other people which clearly shaped 

the Igbo language. However, scholars are of the view that the Igbo custom is dominant, 

hence it continued to be the defining culture even in Igbo communities, when there are 

clear historical evidence of mixture with non-Igbo people. This is largely the case 

among western Igbos. Despite the Ediod influence, the culture is distinctly Igbo, Kalu 

(2017) opines.18 

The Igbo experienced the transatlantic slave trade, which was so traumatic for the Ndi 

Igbo because Igbo concept of slave trade differed radically from the western concept of 

slave trade. In Igbo community a slave is not required to do more work than any other 

person in the community, in fact, a slave can equally own a slave of his own and people 

are rarely slaves for life, Olaudah (1837) holds.19 Ndi Igbo suffered a lot of upheavals 

with the introduction of Christianity and the warrant chief system which led to loss of 

lives of dissenting voices. The experience of colonialism in Igbo nation led to the loss 

of identity of the Igbo as a distinct nation. The Igbos became subsumed in Nigeria which 

equally disrupted the Igbo traditional way of life. 

For people in pre-colonial Igbo land, things were either done for or against them. For 

example the birth of twins was a phenomenon not understood by the Igbo and as such 

was against them - a sign that the gods were angry. To have a set of twins was a curse, 



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an abomination. As such, these innocent children were instantly put to death or 

abandoned to die in the evil forest. The same fate befell anyone who suffered an 

unexplainable affliction and contagious disease like leprosy, small pox, tuberculosis or 

any disease that caused the body to waste or distend. People who suffered these diseases 

were cast away to die alone in the evil forest without any transitional rites. 

BEFITTING LIVING IN IGBO CULTURE 

Life is a mystery. Life, like moral is certainly a problematic subject and much of its 

problems arise from differences in definition, wrong concepts and attitude to life. Life 

is a whole, an entity, a compendium, a mystery and encyclopedia of its own. Life is the 

principle or the source of the activities associated with growth, nutrition, reproduction, 

breathing, thought. It is manifested through some forms of activities. Life is a 

continuum, such that we are either; dead, living, existing or moribund. But there are 

varieties of ways of living our lives. It is within these varieties, that we stamp 'self' 

destroy or better it. Ndi Igbo believe that life is a precious and sacred gift from God 

(Chi ukwu). A traditional Igbo man at the breaking of kola nut appreciates and thanks 

God for the gift of life, prays for long life in good health. The Igbo perception of life is 

portrayed in the names that the Igbo bear such as Ndubuisi (life is the first of all things), 

Ndukaku (life is greater than wealth), Ndubueze (life is king). All these names express 

the priority and premium placed on life by nd? Igbo. The value of life is never equated 

with anything else, not even wealth.  

The sacrosanctity of life is held by the Igbo with both hands hence, any form of 

deliberate destruction of life is abhored in Igbo land. Ndi Igbo believe that one should 

not destroy life that one cannot give. This is why according to Anetoh (2017:63), "it is 

taboo to destroy the life of an unborn child. Any form of abortion is reprehensible in 

Igbo land. The unborn child is already part of the living. He went further to say that: 

Any form of destruction of life is an abomination in Igbo land. 

Thus, suicide, murder, euthanasia etc are not morally 

permissible. In most places in Igbo land, a person who 

commits suicide is not given a decent burial. This is because 

of the fact that one has no right to take away one's life, and 

this stems from the fact that life is sacred (Ibid., p. 63). 

In Igbo ontology, living a good life entails living a highly moral life. One must not soil 

one's hand in evil. To live a good life is to live an honest life devoid of lies and deceit. 

The communalistic nature of traditional Igbo people makes it pertinent that one must 

live a complementary life within the context of accepted social norms and values. In 

Igbo culture an individual is a member of the community and living a good and ethical 

life speaks of the community and not only the individual. The Igbo maintain that ezi 

aha ka ego (good name is better than wealth).  



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To live a good life one must also show solidarity and empathy towards one's neighbours. 

The Igbo believe that a tree does not make a forest hence, one needs the other. The other  

(ibe) is seen as one's half or part. African world, before the disruptive inauguration of 

western colonialism was a society built on very clearly defined and articulated values. 

The values were merged in such a way as to provide internal cohesion and stability in 

the interaction and in the daily lives of the people, especially as it concerns the fraternal 

living of the Igbo society in particular. Communal living abhors the practice of 

individualism. The life of the traditional Igbo societies was that of the communal 

participation otherwise called “communalism” and this is exemplified in the mutual 

relationship found in the community. It symbolizes the “we” concept that is dominant 

in the minds of traditional Igbo people.  

The interest of African Igbo society is to live a communal life, a life devoid of 

individualism, a life of togetherness for the co-operative existence of all. Communalism 

in African Igbo view presumes a collective way of living. Communalism is the 

sociopolitical theory that upholds the priority of community over individual. The need 

for fraternal living is of undeniable importance. This is what is called the “the idea of 

common spirit”.  The need to live together as family is seen as part and parcel of Igbo 

existential statues. The individual in Igbo society has meaning only in the context of the 

community. Mbiti (1970:108), emphasizing the communalistic lifestyle of the African 

state that "I am because we are and since we are, therefore I am". A befitting life for the 

Igbo is a life lived within the community of people, in righteousness and honesty, and 

in conformity with the social values, norms and customs, with strict observance and 

avoidance of what is considered an abomination or taboo. The death of an upright 

person, especially at a ripe old age, is considered a good death and is followed by a 

befitting burial characterized by a lot of eating, drinking, dancing and merrymaking 

amidst the pain of death. 

Nevertheless, the concept of befitting living asides the general understanding of good 

living as already established with respect to Igbo communalist ideology implies, 

connotes and embodies the quality of life and attention given to one, also emphasising 

the level of care, respect and love one enjoys while alive especially from the loved ones 

and members of the family. Befitting living embraces the beauty of ones' happiness and 

fulfilment towards the end of earthly existence. Needless to say that the greatest need 

of any man is always manifest at those moments of weakness due to old age either by 

way of sickness, material challenges, physical disability, loneliness and regrets ( likely 

unfufilled dreams, mistakes, etc.). It is at this point by which one is confronted with 

such challenges such that it is practically impossible to do anything for himself but 

solely depending on the help and solidarity of others. Solidarity from friends and well 

wishers but more explicitly help from children. These challenges makes one to be a 

dependent irrespective of his age. Life is beautiful when such an individual enjoys the 

benevolence of his children strengthening his weakness and brigthing his paths at this 

moment of struggle. Whatever that is offered at this stage of life, call it the stage of 

debility can make life a befitting one. 



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DEATH IN IGBO ONTOLOGY 

According to Ogbonna (2009), in African Igbo society, the individual can only be 

defined in relation to others.26 In Igbo culture, one does not exist for himself. He exists 

for the community. That is why in Igbo ontology, death is essentially a continuum. In 

Igbo ontology, a person is made up of body and spirit (soul). The body and soul have to 

be joined together to make a living person. It is not known exactly when the soul joins 

the body. But some people believe that this takes place when the husband and wife sleep 

together at the conception of the child to be. However, it is thought, that the soul joins 

the body sometime before birth or shortly after birth Mbiti (1975:118) holds. 27 

According to Nwala (1985), death implies merely dissolution of the flesh and not the 

end of life.28 Therefore, the grief at the death of a man is usually because of the sense of 

loss of his physical presence. In fact, the institution of burial among the Igbo is very 

elaborate and it illustrates much that is found in philosophy of life. For instance, their 

belief in an unending existence in the next life leads to elaborate burial rites to ensure 

an honorable place for the dead in the spirit world. A typical burial ceremony in Igbo 

culture embraces a variety of functions and rituals to be mediated by the sons, kinsmen 

(umunna), age grades and secret societies. 

In Igbo ontology, death is recognized as the point when the spirit separates from the 

body. Because the spirit is closely associated with breathing, people know that the spirit 

has gone when the person stops breathing. Even though the spirit leaves the body, the 

spirit still lingers on around the body or homestead until the right burial rites are 

performed to send the spirit off and let him join other spirits (his ancestors). It is equally 

believed that even if the body remains behind, the spirit is still distinguishable by more 

or less the same features as it had when the person lived. So in Igbo ontology the spirit 

does not lose the identity it had when it was a living person. This is why Ndi Igbo 

strongly believe that death is not the end of human life. A person continues to exist in 

the hereafter. And this continuation of life beyond death is recognized through a very 

widespread practice of remembering the dead.  

Death in Igbo culture is not a complete annihilation of a person because he moves on to 

join his ancestors, and continues to live his life as an ancestor if only he meets up with 

the requirement, or he will become akalogheri, that is, the state of not been accepted by 

neither the living nor the dead. Ndi Igbo believe that life is like a pilgrimage: that the 

real home is the hereafter, since one does not depart from there, but rather continues to 

live in the hereafter. Most Rev. Ezeokafor (2017) holds that even though death is a 

transformation, it brings about change in the nature of relationship between the deceased 

and friends and relatives. Death, not as many scholars conceived it, not the finality of 

man but like life, is a journey to another world, the world of the ancestors. 

However, death in Igbo culture could be divided into Ezi onwu (good death) and onwu 

ojoo( bad death) . Ezi onwu (good death) is when a man dies a natural death, by living 

a good ( ethical) life and being accorded a befitting burial while onwu ojoo (bad death) 

is when a man dies through accident or disease like leprosy, tuberculosis, swollen 



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stomach, small pox etc. A bad death is abhorred in Igbo culture. In the traditional Igbo 

worldview, a dead man has a right to a decent burial. Anetoh (2017:63), citing Nze 

(2007:623), states that: 

A dead man has a right in Igbo culture; he is entitled to a fairly 

comprehensive burial rites. The living is obliged to accord him 

their last respect and glorification. The dead expect and often 

demand and enforce the fulfillment of this obligation. Failure 

on the part of the living to award this deserved price induces 

harassment of the living by the dead (Nze, 2007, qtd. by 

Anetoh, 2017:63). 

However, this right is accorded only to those who led good lives or who died what is 

considered a good death (?nw? Ihi). 

BURIAL RITES IN IGBOLAND 

?kwa mmad?/ozu (funeral ceremony), while it captures the importance placed on the 

body of the deceased is quite essential in Igbo culture. It is intended to restore the breach 

in human relationship as well as making whole the living relatives who are assumed to 

have been made unclean by the deceased body. According to Most Rev. Ezeokafor 

(2017:33), burial has: 

The connotation of restoring the breach in human relationship 

caused by death and the relationship between human beings 

and the spirit-world. The restoration of this will ensure that the 

dead reach the ancestral home peacefully and do not haunt the 

living. It is believed that, unless these rites are fully 

completed, some of which could last for over a year, the 

funeral is not successful and the spirit of the dead will continue 

to roam aimlessly as dangerous spirits referred to as 

akalogheli (2017:33). 

 The Igbo traditional society believe that burial or burying a loved one or a family 

member is the best thing or normal thing, a family can do for their dead ones. Because 

according to Igbo tradition, when a man receives a proper burial, he moves on to join 

his ancestors, if and only if he lived a good and proper life while on earth. According to 

Izunwa (2016:127)20 funeral ceremony appears to cover the entire vistas of the various 

rites, rituals and observances, whether socio-religious or psychological, which function 

to accompany the deceased to the world beyond, the burial ceremonies appear specified 

and limited to the actual symbolic observance that is immediately connected with 

interment, that is, of the ritual acts linked with committing the dead to the mother earth. 

In the words of Izunwa, when burial is done in Igbo land, they compose of a whole lot 

of symbolic rituals comprising acts from the living members of the human society while 

establishing in the beyond a company with ancestors.21 From there, a new kind of 

relationship or some form of spiritual communion with the living can be re-arranged. 

The workability of this circularity depends, according to Metuh (1987:252) on the 



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functionality of the burial rituals. It is widely believed by the Igbo that where a burial 

ceremony is unbefittingly organized, the spirit of the dead person becomes unsettled 

and hover around and will continually hunt the living.22 Kalu (1979:15) asserts that once 

a person is improperly buried, the spirit of the dead person would be unhappy and 

probably return as an evil spirit for vengeance. A person who is not properly buried 

becomes what I termed akalogheri, a state of rejection by both the living and the dead. 

A dead person without a befitting burial, Ndi Igbo believe, is not accepted into the abode 

of the ancestors nor does he partake in anything in the great beyond. The spirit of such 

person turns to a malevolent spirit that torments the family members until he is accorded 

his rights, a befitting burial. Most often, the organisation of another burial is always the 

best remedy to such infernal onslaught.23 Izunwa (2016:129) holds that the Igbo view 

death as a movement from the "here" to another similar in character, with the possibility 

of a return to "here".24  

A befitting burial is a prerequisite for joining the great beyond; hence the premium Igbo 

people place on it. In Igbo traditional society, the type and quality of burial that is 

accorded to a person depend on how well he lived his life and the type of death that 

followed. Metuh (1987:133) says that, in Igbo community, a person who died naturally 

as in ripe old age is called onwu chi, that is a person who lived a good life, married with 

children and did not die within a solemn festivity nor die of strange disease. Anybody 

who dies outside this set criteria for good death, is said to have met a bad death ajo 

onwu.25 The burial rites of a person who died naturally and led a good life is richly 

celebrated, carried out with a mixed feeling of sadness for having to miss his or her 

presence, jokes, love etc.  

Such burial are usually with a lot of eating, drinking, dancing and cultural displays. The 

burial of a person who met a bad death, (ajo onwu) such as suicide, leprosy, tuberculosis, 

swollen stomach (otoro) etc. are usually low key and in some communities in Igbo land, 

they are usually thrown into the evil forest since it is a taboo to bury such corpse. Ndi 

Igbo believe that death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he will 

continue to live in the hereafter. In some part of Igbo land, people are buried with their 

belongings such as money, tools, ornaments, bead, foodstuffs, spears, arrows etc which 

will be placed on the grave afterwards. Formerly, in some places, servants and wives of 

kings and other rich people were also buried with the body. The belief behind this 

custom is that the departed needs weapons to defend himself along the way to the next 

world, or food to eat on the journey, wives and servants to keep him company when he 

reaches there and property to use so that he would not arrive empty-handed or remain 

poor. 

ANCESTORSHIP 

In Igbo traditional society, not every man that dies becomes an ancestor. Ndi Igbo 

believe that ancestorship is not meant for every person that dies especially when a man 

didn't lead a good life while on earth. According to Igbo tradition, for one to be called 

an ancestor, one must reach the following requirements: 



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i. One must live a good (ethical) life while on 
earth, ii. One must attain ripe age (must not die 
young), iii. One must be given a proper and 
befitting burial, 

iv. One must not die from a contagious disease like small pox, tuberculosis, leprosy 

etc. 

According to Ebo (2019:24), those who died before ripe age are not considered to have 

made it into the comity of the ancestors. They simply disappear from existence. They 

are neither punished nor rewarded. Neither are they required to transmigrate in any 

form.29 In his words, death of a youth is a sad event in the community. No father in the 

traditional Igbo society wishes to bury his son or daughter. In such situation, they are 

not required to see the corpse. Not all who died at ripe age are qualified to enter the 

comity of the ancestors. The dead must have lived faithfully to the ethical dictates of 

the community. The ancestors are akin to saints in Christendom. They are role models 

to be imitated by their family members and the community at large.  Those who lived 

unethically become wandering spirits akalogheri, who are neither welcome among the 

living nor among the ancestors. They are said to dwell in the wilderness, away from the 

rest of the community. Their spirit are said to be restless because they are not committed 

to the comity of the ancestors. 

Among the Igbos, certain disease such as leprosy and swollen stomach (otoro) are 

viewed as bad omens from the gods. People who die from such disease are deemed 

unworthy of admittance into the comity of ancestors, even when they had lived an 

ethical live. The community however does not designate their spirit as akalogheri. They 

are viewed as unfortunate. They just disappear. 

In Igbo traditional society, even when a man dies at ripe age, after leading an exemplary 

life, if he is not accorded a befitting and proper burial, he is not worthy of admittance 

into the comity of ancestors. This requirement has made traditional Igbo burial very 

expensive. Which means, the higher the Social status of the dead the more expensive 

the burial. The more the title, the more elaborate the rituals will be at death.  If the dead 

person's progeny are not able to meet up with these requirements, the dead person will 

not qualify to enter the comity of ancestors. Their spirit will now become akalogheri 

and hover around the family, causing bad omens among them until the dead person is 

given a befitting burial and committed to the comity of ancestors. 

REINCARNATION IN IGBO TRADITION 

While the surviving relatives remember the departed, the spirit more or less left a 

personal continuation of life, and become what we call the living dead. People regard it 

as being much like a human being although it is dead. If it appears to members of the 

family, they will say that they saw so and so, up to that point it has not lost its personal 

name and identity. During this period which may last up to four or even five generations, 

it is possible for something of the features and personality of such a spirit ( the living 

dead) to be noticed in a newly born child. Then people would say that so and so has 



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come back, has returned or has been reborn. The child may be given the name of that 

deceased person or people may make sacrifices and offerings to express joy and 

gratitude. This idea of partial rebirth is called reincarnation.  

According to Ebo (2019:24), Ndi Igbo believe that their ancestors come back to them 

in the form of newborns.30 Ndi Igbo do not believe that the newborn is the same person 

as the ancestor. They recognize the newborn as a brand new person with a unique 

identity. However, the newborn is a reincarnation of an ancestor, and the newborn is 

viewed to be under the influence of the ancestors. As the child grows older, Ndi Igbo 

look out for the traces of the personality of the ancestors in question in the attitude of 

the child. This phenomenon can be viewed like the seed. Although the planted seed is 

manifested in the new seed it yields, the new seed is not said to be that very seed that 

was planted. Yet, there are always attributes of the planted seed in the new seed. So is 

the concept of reincarnation among the Igbos. 

In Igbo ontology, the ancestor does not leave the comity of ancestors at reincarnation 

while reincarnating among the living. The ancestor continues to dwell in the comity of 

ancestors from where he will intercede for the family he has left among the living. He 

continues to perform the important task of watching out for his family against the 

spiritual harm. Reincarnation of an ancestor is not limited to only one newborn. An 

ancestor may reincarnate in more than one newborn. 

The dead who did not qualify to be committed to the comity of ancestors cannot 

reincarnate. Among the Igbos, only the dead who have been fully committed to the 

comity of ancestors have the power to reincarnate. 

REMEMBERING THE DEAD IN IGBO CULTURE 

The Igbo African societies believe that death is not the end of human life. A person 

continues to exist in the hereafter. This continuation of life beyond death is recognized 

through the widespread practice of remembering the departed. There are four ways of 

remembering the dead (i) food and drink for the dead (ii) consultation and rituals (iii) 

naming the dead in prayers (iv) naming children after the dead.  

i. Food and drink for the dead: In Igbo African society, the heads of families pour 

out beer, water etc on the ground for the spirit of the family. They may also put bits of 

food on the ground for the same purpose. In the traditional Igbo society, there are often 

family shrines in the homestead or behind the houses, set apart for remembering the 

departed. Kola nuts, beer and other food items are placed, with words to effect that the 

food is being given to those who have departed; sometimes their names are being 

mentioned. 

ii. Consultation and rituals: In Igbo culture, another way of remembering the 

departed is to consult them through a medicine man or the diviner, when a major family 

decision is about to be made or when there is a major ilness. During family rituals and 



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ISSN: 2786-9792  

13 

ceremonies, such that mark the birth and initiation of children, the departed are often 

remembered in a definite way. 

iii. Naming the dead in prayers: In Igbo culture, it is important to mention the names 

of the departed relatives when one is praying to God. These departed members of the 

family are believed to relay the prayers to God. 

iv. children after the dead: The departed can also be remembered by naming 

children after them, especially if their features have been inherited by those children. 

Sometimes, sacrifices and offerings are made to the departed in order to honour them 

and appreciate them for returning to us in human body. 

CONCLUSION 

In the words of Epicurus, death need not bother anyone because only a living person 

has sensation either of pain or of pleasure. After death there is no sensation, since the 

atoms that make up bodies and minds come apart. There is no longer this particular body 

or mind but only a number of distinct atoms that return, as it were, to the primeval 

inventory of matter to continue the cycle of new formations. Death should be a welcome 

development in Igbo culture because; it is a mystery all men must face one day. In Igbo 

society, death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he moves to join his 

ancestors and continue to live his life in the hereafter.  Befitting burial is one of the 

qualifications a dead person needs to be made ancestors. This is why Ndi Igbo are 

cautious of how and where a dead person is buried.  A dead person is not readily 

forgotten, they are always remembered by their family members. In Igbo communities, 

the heads of the families pour out drinks and water on the ground for the spirits of the 

family. There are shrines in the homestead or behind the houses, set apart for 

remembering the departed. Kolanuts, drinks and other food items are placed or poured 

out to them on daily basis or occasionally to remember them. 

The grave is the seal of everything, even if a person survives and continues to exist in 

the next world, there is an accelerated rhythm from death through the state of personal 

immortality (as the living dead) to the state of collective immortality (as ordinary 

spirits). This final ' beat' of the rhythm may or may not have an end. However, there is 

nothing to hope for, since death is the destiny for everybody; though older people do 

not seem to fear, and may even long for 'death' from this to the next world. The dead 

person does not grow spiritually towards or like God, though some may act as 

intermediaries between men and God or may have more power and knowledge than 

human beings. Such is the anthropocentric view of the destiny of man, as far as Igbo 

traditional African concepts are concerned, death is death and is the beginning of a 

permanent ontological departure of the individual from Mankind to spirit hood. Death 

is the end of real and complete man. Finally, having understood death as a continum 

and a befitting burial as a gateway to the after life, our argument is; attention must be 

given to one while alive especially at the dark hours of one's existence to enhance quality 

and healthy living. A lot of effort must be made to enlighten the minds of our young 



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14 

ones towards their poor mentally and attitude in taking care of their aged parents, 

denying them the opportunity of reaping the fruits of their labour only to give them a 

befitting burial after death. It makes no sense when you say "The celebration of life" 

because you want to show your flamboyant burial knowing fully well that the deceased 

in question died with the denial of such benevolence while alive. Life cannot be 

celebrated alone by the virtue of the number of years lived but by the quality of life and 

fulfilment one enjoyed. To whatever extent the befitting burial is important to ensure a 

free passage of the deceased to the after life,  greater it is a beffiting living for the 

deceased to die a happy death. 

RECOMMENDATION 

It will be stating the obvious to say that while death brings about pain and sorrow, burial 

has been trivialized just as it has become a show of one's or family's affluence. As Prof. 

Pita Ejiofor (1985:88) remarks, "Except for the immediate relations, death is no more a 

source of sorrow, but an opportunity for conspicuous consumption". Most Rev.  

Ezeokafor (2017:20) laments that: 

Beginning from the time of death to the conclusion of the 

funeral ceremonies, bereaved families engage in mundane, 

flamboyant, and wasteful practices and ceremonies, largely in 

a bid to meet up with demands made on them by the society 

and those they lay on themselves. Therefore, burial and 

funeral ceremonies have become a multi-million Naira 

project, such that many families unable to meet up with the 

demands do borrow or sell some of their property and real 

estates. Some postpone the burials and funeral to such a time 

they are able to finance the huge bills that may accompany the 

funeral ceremonies (Ezeokafor, 2017:20). 

It has degenerated to the ugly situation that many young people neglect their aged 

parents in the villages while they enjoy life in the city; and upon death (of their parents), 

return to give them magnificent burial. It is against this worrisome development that 

this paper makes the following recommendations. 

1. Haven seen that Igbo traditional burials are becoming more and more expensive, 

thereby making family members who could not afford the richly and elaborated burial 

ceremony for their dead ones, to neglect and abandon them in the mortuary and also 

allowing their bodies to stay in mortuary more than three months all in the name of 

gathering money to throw a richly and satisfactory burial. Hence, the idea of expensive 

burials should be discouraged. 

2. It is also recommended that Ndi Igbo should understand that giving someone a 

befitting richly burial is super good, but we should equally pay more attention in giving 

them food and taking care of them while they are still alive than a richly and elaborated 

burial, when it was obvious that the person died because of hunger and lack of care. 



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ISSN: 2786-9792  

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3. Worthy of note is the fact that life and death are polar concepts because human 

being can speculate on the origin of life and death but may not be certain about it. It 

may not be possible for human reason to understand life as a whole. It is suggested that 

less emphasis be placed on the origin and nature of death, but rather to accept it as the 

fundamental reality of human existence that brings to an end man's earthly struggles and 

possibilities. 

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